All posts by Jackdaw Learning & Teaching

I am a teacher educator and curriculum consultant. My specialisms are TESOL, learner diversity, learner independence, learning technologies, assessment and Teaching & Learning in Higher Education.
Phonics, TESOL

Not Jolly but Folly Phonics for China

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I’m going to argue in this post that phonics is inappropriate for children learning English as a foreign language in countries such as China.

I was prompted to write this post by two experiences.

Firstly, I met the owner of a chain of language centres in mainland China who was in Hong Kong to purchase phonics kits from regional distributors of US/UK publishers. According to him, phonics courses sell very well in China.

Secondly, I read a balanced article about phonics on the BBC News website entitled Viewpoints: Teaching children to read  http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-19812961 To summarise the content, research evidence supports the view that bottom-up systematic phonics is more effective than the alternative ‘look and say’ method. However, it does have drawbacks and limitations and shouldn’t be relied upon alone to cultivate good readers. In other words, it is a necessary but not sufficient component of an overall approach to early literacy development. Those drawbacks and limitations are listed in the BBC article so I won’t repeat them here. The evaluation of phonics by the writer of this article was done with native speaker environments in mind.

I would, however, like to underline a serious problem with phonics in language environments such as China where English is taught as a foreign language to young children. Those children are likely to lack the oral skills in English that are an essential prerequisite to success in learning to read through phonics. This is because phonics teaches children to decode words by sounds. Once a native speaker child has successfully sounded out an unfamiliar written word, they can access meaning by associating it with the spoken version of the word that they already know. So, as one of the literacy experts interviewed for the BBC article, Lisa Morgan, points out, “children with good oral language skills are likely to become good readers”.

So why is phonics so popular in China?

Phonics kits, e.g. Letterland,  Jolly Phonics, etc. are packaged very nicely. Such good presentation alone can give the impression of professionalism and reliability and may be one of the reasons why parents of young children have faith in the method.  It is also systematic, encouraging the view that it is well-conceived. Moreover, repetitive learning is widely practised and accepted in China and phonics fits in well with this educational heritage.

Phonics may become effective after English oral skills and vocabulary have been developed adequately. But from what I observe, it is used at introductory levels of instruction with (very) young children.

Question

Are you using phonics to teach young learners of English and, if so, what are your experiences of this method?

Learning technologies

The value of art in educational websites

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Abstract

“If consumers can justify elegance to themselves in pragmatic terms, they’d much rather have it than ugliness.” (David Gelernter: The Omni Interviews)

Is it possible to justify artistic website design in pragmatic terms that are convincing enough for web designers from an engineering background? Writers of seminal works on web design tend to come from such a background and appear to have two conceptions of the value of art. It is either for pleasure or for personal expression. For them, neither of these values compares in importance with the criteria of accessibility and usability. A third value – aiding users’ understanding – is highlighted, recommended and exemplified in this post. This ability of art to assist comprehension should prove more palatable to designers and provide them with clearer criteria by which to evaluate their work.

Introduction

In creating websites for educational purposes in the past, I have been uncertain about how much time and effort should be devoted to their visual appeal and impact. Besides aesthetic appeal, I was aware that visual learners, a high proportion of the population reportedly, have not been well-catered for in education historically, and that prompted me to explore the issue in a little more depth. The questions that I wanted answers to included:

  • Is the use of art and visuals superfluous?
  • Do art and visuals serve to distract and thereby reduce website usability?
  • What is an appropriate balance between form and function in educational web design?
  • Are there good reasons for designing visually attractive websites?

By the end of this post, I aim to establish criteria for the inclusion or exclusion of art and visuals in educational websites. The approach that I take is to use the views of noted web design gurus as a springboard for discussion and reflection.

Key terms: art, visuals, visual design

What is art? This is a very old and perplexing question and for the purposes of this post, as Palmer and Dodson point out (1996: 3), “There is no point in trying to arrive at some eternal essence of art.” Tomes have been written on this very subject and it is beyond the scope of this post to do the same. Some visuals are art and some are not. Diagrams and charts, for example, are not normally considered to be works of art. At the other extreme, it is uncontroversial, this author believes, that the images at, e.g., My Pet Skeleton qualify as art. There are some examples which are more contentious. However, for the purposes of this post, the important issue is not so much what art is, but what the value of art is. A more profitable level of discussion is a normative one, the value or lack of value of art and other visuals in Web design. The often hotly debated distinction between art and non-art is not crucial because it is the value of both art and other visuals that is under discussion.

I will concentrate on pictorial art even though not all art is visual, as it is the use of pictorial art that is the subject of concern amongst authorities on Web design in question.

What are visuals? Within ‘visuals’ may be included photographs, drawings, cartoon strips, animation, charts and diagrams, backgrounds. The term is used here to cover all images that are not included under the term ‘art’. The difference between art and visuals is that the latter may not create an emotional response in the user or be a means of self-expression for the designer. Their value lies in their explanatory power and ability to present information in an easily digestible form.

What is visual design? Visual design is more than the appearance of a website. According to (the now defunct) Mouse Visual Design, the term “embraces the appearance and organisation and layout of the graphical elements: focal point, contrast, relationship of one element to another, use of colour and fonts, organisation, point of view, appropriate feedback, logical navigation and appropriate functionality.” This simple website, for example, has been created using a borrowed and slightly customized WordPress theme in an attempt to convey and reinforce the monochrome association that I have with jackdaws, probably resulting from having seen quite a few block prints of these birds. Hopefully, the jackdaw metaphor – stealing shiny objects for a nest – is made more obvious.

Existing Guidelines

For Web designers there are numerous sources of advice. These consist of lists of assertions about best practice together with rationales.

Firstly, I read and summarised the views of prominent sources of advice (or gurus) on the aesthetics of computing and Web design. The following authorities were selected: Jakob Nielsen, Vincent Flanders, and David Gelernter. Also included are guidelines that informed the quango British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTA)/Guardian Educational Web Site Awards. My interpretation of the theories of art and design behind these guidelines will be given in the following section.

Jakob Nielsen

Nielsen states (1999: 11) that “There are essentially two basic approaches to design: the artistic ideal of expressing yourself and the engineering ideal of solving a problem for a customer.” Nielsen declares his allegiance to the engineering approach. He does not prescribe totally excluding art, he does not try to negate the affective value of art, but sees it as just one of many factors to be taken into account by the designer. It is not the most important factor. Incidentally, the section of his book from which this quote is drawn is entitled Art vs. Engineering, suggesting an attitude that the two are antithetical. The attitude that self-expression is outweighed by fitness for purpose is reinforced by advice offered on his web site, useit.com. Websites must tone down their individual appearance and distinct design in all ways:

  • visual design
  • terminology and labeling
  • interaction design and workflow
  • information architecture

He also says, regards content, that “There will always be a need to determine the best approach to describing each unit of information.” Nielsen accepts that there is more than one way to present information. (One wonders if the best way might be visual on occasion.)

A recurring theme of Nielsen’s work is the need for simplicity:

If you do think you have too little complexity in your life, you will relish the challenge of a website with a mystery interface that makes you work hard to get any results. But most users would rather have simplicity. (1999:380)

Art is suspect in Nielsen’s view because it is ‘surplus to requirements’. Art can be an unnecessary complication that distracts the user from achieving their purposes on the web site; visual design that detracts from functionality should be avoided. Another disadvantage of art and visuals is that they increase download times.

In a discussion with Jakob Nielsen and Vincent Flanders in CIO Magazine, Nielsen says that a website looking good contributes to subjective satisfaction, and this is one criterion of usability. If there is no pleasure at all in visiting the site, then this will put users off. So, a website needs to be attractive to a certain minimum standard, but no more than that. A website that feels good is one which allows you to achieve your purposes with ease. Achieving purpose, I believe, is Nielsen’s paramount concern.

Vincent Flanders

Flanders is mostly, but not totally, in agreement with Nielsen. He identifies an exception to Nielsen’s recommendations for simplicity and usability. The exception is websites dedicated to personal expression. He makes this serious point in characteristic style:

Imagine Van Gogh as a web designer being told, “Yo, Vinnie — your work has to fit inside 640 x 480 pixels and you can only use 216 colors.” I suspect it would be a piece of your ear that would be missing. (Fixing Your Web Site – defunct website)

In his joint interview with Nielsen in CIO Magazine, Flanders is more explicit. He says that “…certain sites [such as music group sites] are expected to be hip”. Being different is central to their purpose, and this applies as much to the way musicians design their websites as to the way they write music or dress. For example, TheBeatles.com. Visitors to this site, aficionados of The Beatles, will be prepared to put up with confusing navigation. Indeed, this is part of the attraction.

However, most websites will be for commercial, practical purposes. On Web Pages That Suck, Flanders gets to the point. “Web design is not about art, it’s about making money.” Websites are mostly designed to satisfy some economic need, desire or demand. This may not be the case with educational websites.

David Gelernter

Gelernter’s discussion of design principles relates to computing in general rather than Web design specifically. In fact, he has no confidence in the Web and sees it as ‘prehistoric’. However, his ideas on design are nonetheless worthy of consideration in that they apparently contrast with those of Nielsen and Flanders. Gelernter proposes a central role for aesthetics and ‘beauty’ in computer design.  But what exactly does he mean by ‘beauty’?

“The beauty of a proof or machine lies in a happy marriage of simplicity and power – power meaning the ability to accomplish a wide range of tasks, get a lot done.” (1998: 2)

This is not a common definition of ‘beauty’. Beauty is commonly thought of as having a non-utilitarian nature. Actually, it can be seen that he is stressing accessibility and usability. The concept of beauty that he proposes is similar to Nielsen’s description of a site with a good feel.

Gelernter adds, intriguingly, that simplicity and power are necessary but possibly not sufficient conditions for beauty to exist. “Bringing power and simplicity to bear doesn’t guarantee machine beauty – just makes it possible, and nothing else does.” (1998: 2) Some other ingredient is hinted at by Gelernter, but he has no words to describe it.

Gelernter, I believe, does not see art and engineering as being in direct opposition, but that a balance is achievable that incorporates aspects of both. He proposes, in his 1998 book, designs for computer furniture and desktops that are efficient, minimalist, and with clean lines (in the case of the furniture).

BECTA/The Guardian Education Web Site Awards

There is a marked difference between the above guides’ attitudes towards design and those apparent in the guidelines supplied by (the now defunct) BECTA. Here are some excerpts relevant to this discussion:

  • The standard of websites is rising all the time and people expect more in terms of look and feel.
  • Does the design of the site, pages, graphics, sound, video, etc. assist user comprehension?
  • If the design calls for special features – animation, for example – try to ensure that the technology works in the background and does not draw attention to itself.
  • Use sound and video only when they aid understanding.

BECTA’s definitions of look and feel are not provided, so it is difficult to make a comparison with Nielsen’s definitions. If, as is claimed, users’ expectations are rising, then more resources and effort will be required for visual design in future. This source of guidelines is specific to educational websites and the emphasis on understanding makes sense in the light of this. BECTA’s guidelines hint at a different theory of the value of pictorial art and other visuals, one which will be clarified and explored below.

Theories Behind These Guidelines

The next stage of this post is to clarify and evaluate the implicit philosophies of the value of art of the above advisors.

None of the above guides make explicit their theories of the value (or lack of value) of art, so there is the possibility of misinterpretation. Yet I still consider this a valuable exercise because I believe that there is a need to think about this subject in a theoretically self-conscious way.

Nielsen, as evidenced by the quote above (1999: 11), conceives of art as a vehicle for human expression. The web designers’ personal satisfaction in having expressed themselves is not as high a priority in his estimation as websites meeting users’ needs. This is a reasonable conclusion as long as one accepts that art’s only value is its ability to act as a vehicle of self-expression. The latter is important but not as important as the website fulfilling its function.

In addition, Nielsen may also be in the camp of those who believe that art has value because it can inspire positive emotions. “While I acknowledge that there is a need for art, fun and a general good time on the Web, I believe that the main goal of most Web projects should be to make it easy for customers to perform useful tasks.” (1999: 11) Art’s value in creating pleasure exists, but again it is not as crucial as getting things done. If pleasure is the only value of art, Nielsen’s conclusion seems reasonable for the vast majority of websites.

Flanders is less inclined to inhibit self-expression than Nielsen, but only in the special case of ‘artistic’ sites. He also appears sympathetic to the valuing of art for its ability to create pleasure for the creator or viewer.

To summarise, Nielsen and Flanders implicitly subscribe to the two most common and obvious theories of the value of art. These are identified by Graham (1997) as:

Art and pleasure

Art is valuable because it is a source of amusement, pleasure or an opportunity to play.

Expressivism

Art is valuable as it provides us with a chance to express our emotions and exercise our imaginations.

The above two theories are affective, they relate to subjective satisfaction, either of the user or the designer. However, there is another theory of the value of art which is more pragmatic and directly related to the website being fit for purpose:

Aesthetic cognitivism

Stated briefly, aesthetic cognitivism is “The thesis that serious art presents us with a means by which human understanding may be advanced…” (Graham 1997: 48)

Wittgenstein, in the translated and edited Culture and Value (1980), makes a similar point. “People nowadays think that scientists exist to instruct them, poets musicians etc. to give pleasure. The idea that these have something to teach them – that does not occur to them.”

Showing this latter claim to be correct would increase the importance of art in most people’s estimation because knowledge and understanding are generally given a greater status than entertainment, or even the expression of emotion. This greater status explains in part the high standing in which science [and engineering] is normally held… (Graham 1997: 45)

Relating this to website design, if the inclusion of art promotes understanding, then this may justify the time and effort needed to make art a feature of said website. Artistic design may lead not to confusion but to greater understanding. Amongst the authorities on Web design that have been considered here, only BECTA took into account the implications of aesthetic cognitivism. Unfortunately though, BECTA ceased to exist in 2011, a victim of government funding cuts.

In favour of aesthetic cognitivism is the observation that people commonly discuss art as if it carries messages; they wonder aloud or to themselves what a picture could mean.

There are also criticisms of aesthetic cognitivism, and these are related to Graham’s version of the theory as applying to masterpieces: he sees the facilitation of understanding and advancement of knowledge as a defining characteristic of masterpieces. Graham’s theory is grand. It makes the claim that art pushes back the frontier of human knowledge. To circumvent this criticism, I propose another, more humble version i.e. that advancing understanding is an additional quality of art, one that is not accounted for in the guidelines of these gurus, that can combine with pleasure and expression to make a more persuasive argument for the inclusion of art in websites wherever it is an effective and efficient means to convey meaning or raise awareness. The author argues that a recognition of art as a means to assist comprehension is very important and should be a guideline for Web design.

Graham does not clearly distinguish between enhancing understanding and advancing knowledge. He is talking about art as a means to extend the totality of human knowledge. The author here only claims that both art and other visuals can help individual humans to understand existing knowledge.

Gelernter’s ideas about beautiful design appear to me to be in accordance with those of the 20th Century Modernist movement. In fact, some of the examples of good design that Gelernter mentions are from the 1930s.

The Bauhaus style, later known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornament and ostentatious facades and the harmony between function and the artistic and technical means employed. Bauhaus was established by Walter Gropius in Germany just after WW1. The motto of the Bauhaus movement from 1923 was ‘art and technology – a new unity’. Bauhaus attempted to break down the traditional distinction between art and crafts, and to achieve a purposeful integration of both engineering and aesthetic standards.

Gelernter’s ideas for computer furniture design, for example, and for a new interface, show that he values form that is functional, elegant and simple. Gelernter is attracted to purity (and Nielsen even more so). These are values, and they are not universally shared. A criticism, that Modernism is not exhaustive, was levelled by Postmodernists. Woodham reports that (1997: 183) “…questions were raised whether …the modernist aesthetic could cater adequately for the increasingly variegated tastes and desires of the consumer.” Some users prefer greater decoration, even on commercial sites, and greater decoration and individuality will be a part of the image of some products. For example, the Hong Kong website for the Mini (MINIhk.com) is highly dynamic whereas the Volkswagen Hong Kong site seems to me to be a reflection of the company’s car design philosophy; straightforward, unfussy, functional and reliable.

Gelernter says “beauty of a proof”. A proof in mathematics is admired for its simplicity and brevity. Scientists, mathematicians and philosophers are guided in choosing between rival theories, proofs or propositions by Occam’s Razor. Occam’s razor is a logical principle attributed to the mediaeval philosopher William of Occam. The principle states that one should not make more assumptions than the minimum needed. This principle is often called the principle of parsimony. It underlies all scientific modelling and theory building. It admonishes us to choose from a set of otherwise equivalent models of a given phenomenon the simplest one. (Occam’s Razor)

However, how close is this analogy between proofs and websites? Cognitive modelling is probably the equivalent of applying the Razor, but it is used in combination with user testing because “…no mechanistic interpretation of cognitive processes is comprehensive.” (Cognitive Modeling and Human Computer Interaction) The design that is most successful at the cognitive modelling stage of development may fail to impress users.

How can art and visuals be used to help us understand?

I propose several ways:

1) Art can help us understand art itself

For those websites devoted to art education, the exclusion of art would be a severe limitation. Eyes on Art is an example of a task-based art education site that it is difficult to imagine working as well with text only. There is the possibility of the benefit that exposure to and discussion of art may lead students to a better understanding of human nature, as Harrison (1997) concludes.

2) Visuals can reinforce the explanation of concepts

Haight, M (1999: 3) “A valid argument’s form is like a reliable sausage machine: if you put good meat in, you get a good sausage out; if you feed truth in, you get truth out.” Her sausage machine depiction of the process of argument is a good example of using a visual to reinforce a concept. This pictorial metaphor of a sausage machine is used several times to convey concepts and illustrate valid, invalid, sound and unsound argument forms. On a website, her sausage machine could be animated for greater effect.

3) Producing art is a valid response to art, to demonstrate understanding of a work of art

Avril (2002) found positive results in doing this with students. “Students made their own computer graphics both to discover and to describe literary structures of their choice.” The process of producing these graphics encouraged “genuinely original literary perceptions”. An example of this can be seen at At Exeter University TTI course: Cover 7; the student Alison Pringle has demonstrated her insight into the LeGuin novel through production of a title page. Avril concedes that, although the method appeared to work well, it is not understood why; further research by educational psychologists is required. In the meantime, however, the method can still be used. Importantly, “The module’s innovative methods are eminently transferable to other disciplines.”

4) Art and visuals help users comprehend the philosophies of companies and other organizations

No commercial website would be complete without artwork. Even on the simplest corporate sites e.g. Google, careful attention is paid to the logo, the choice of font and the background. This is sometimes referred to as identity or logo design. There is a point being made, a philosophy behind the design, and the logo is to help the consumer understand the message that the company wants delivered. For example, is the company modern and trendy, eco-friendly, or steeped in tradition and trustworthy? Woodham (1997: 143) attributes to Henrion the idea that the fashioning of corporate personality is crucial in a situation where it and its competitor’s products are very similar. The Care2 website has a good example of a logo. Green is used and a frog with the associations of nature and environment.

By contrast, Nielsen’s site, useit.com, lacks a logo that is truly distinctive. useit.com is in Arial. The word ‘use’ is red and the rest is black. It is not instantly recognisable, and it is not easy to protect in that it is reproducible on any computer. The author imagines that for these reasons it might have been difficult to register it as a trademark. Compare this with the logo for Google. Google is well-known for having a simple interface yet considerable effort has been put into the creation of its logo. Flanders used an image (of a spanner) as part of a meaningful logo on his old website called Fixing Your Web Site.

5) Art and visuals can, on occasion, be more efficient and effective than text at conveying ideas

In Kress and van Leeuwen (1996: 2) the view is put forward that “…some things can be ‘said’ only visually, others only verbally.” This is a strong claim, very difficult to substantiate, and one which is debated in Harrison (1997). Going back to Gelernter, he is unable to describe in words the ingredient that guarantees machine beauty. There may be truth in the above claim by Kress and van Leeuwen, and the evidence for it is simply that language is a clumsy tool with which to describe what visuals ‘say’. Weaker claims, that some things may be said more or equally as effectively via visuals, or are effectively reinforced via visuals, are preferred by the author because they are less controversial. The example is given in Kress (1996: 31) of how some science text books are changing in design, with visuals taking over from text as the primary means of explanation.

Visuals can be a particularly efficient way to portray complex concepts; as the old saying goes, “a picture is worth a thousand words”. On Flanders’ Web Pages that Suck he uses the term Mystery Meat Navigation, and then includes a paragraph to explain the expression. I would argue that his mouseover image of a road sign does a better job of getting across the concept of the result of poor design of navigation buttons. The language that he uses is opaque, not plain as Nielsen recommends. Flanders is willing to use language and visuals creatively in order to get his message across. The explanatory power of visuals should, however, be balanced carefully with Nielsen’s “An image takes two thousand words worth of download time.” (1999: 135) Yet this need not be the case when lossy files
are utilised and becomes less of an issue over time with the advent of shortened download times.

Additional reasons for including art and visuals

  • Users with a tendency towards a visual learning style can benefit from the inclusion of art and other visuals.
  • Visual literacy is a big issue in schools. Kress (1996: 32,33) “If schools are to equip students adequately for the new semiotic order…” “This will have to involve modern computer technology, central as it is to the new semiotic landscape.” The use of icons and other forms of visual shorthand is widespread.

Conclusions

Is it now possible, after this discussion, to establish criteria for the inclusion of art and visuals in website design?

Web designers will have to decide whether the inclusion or exclusion of art or visuals affects the website’s success significantly in any or all of these ways:

  • users do or do not like the look of it
  • users do or do not understand the message or content as well as they might.

In addition, copyright issues must be taken into consideration. Who do the images belong to? Is permission needed to use them?

A final question to pose is whether Web designers’ personal expression interferes with accessibility or usability. If it is only personal expression that is being satisfied by including art, and it does make the site more difficult to use, then another design is required.

These decisions can be informed by feedback from user testing.

Questions

Do any (educational) web designers out there agree with my criteria?

Do you know of any websites that include art and visuals in ways that promote comprehension? If so, please tell me about them. Thanks!

References

A Discussion with Jakob Nielsen and Vincent Flanders In this section … – CIO Magazine Dec 1. URL: http://www.cio.com/article/30756/How_Should_Websites_Look_Jakob_Nielsen_and_Vincent_Flanders_Speak_Up

Avril, H. (2002) Computer graphics and the literary construct: a learning method. British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 33, No. 1, 7-15.

Becta/The Guardian Educational Web Site Awards: Effective Web Design. URL:  http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110130111510/http:/www.becta.org.uk

Care2 Environment Supersite. URL: http://www.care2.com/

Cognitive Modeling and Human Computer Interaction. URL: http://www.cs.uoregon.edu/research/cm-hci/

Eileen Gunn: Imaginary Friends :: The Omni Interviews :: David Gelernter. URL: http://www.sff.net/people/Gunn/gelernter.htm/

Exeter University TTI course: Cover 7. URL: http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/bjethybridarticles/welcome.html

Eyes on Art. URL: http://www.tommarch.com/webquests/art2/guide/guide.html

Fixing Your(tm) Web Site – Solving Design and usability problems. URL: http://www.fixingyourwebsite.com/nielsen_dogshows.html/

Gelernter, D. (1998) The Aesthetics of Computing. Phoenix.

Google. URL: http://www.google.com/

Graham, G. (1997) Philosophy of the Arts: An Introduction to Aesthetics. Routledge.

Haight, M (1999)The Snake and the Fox. Routledge.

Harrison, A. (1997) Philosophy and the Arts – Seeing and Believing. Thoemmes Press.

Kress, G. and van Leeuwen, T. (1996) Reading Images – The Grammar of Visual Design. Routledge.

MINIhk.com URL: http://www.minihk.com/

My Pet Skeleton. URL: www.mypetskeleton.com/

Mouse Visual Design. URL: http://www.mousewks.com/visual/definition.htm/

Nielsen, J. (1999) Designing Web Usability – The Practice of Simplicity. New Riders Publishing.

Occam’s Razor. URL: http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/OCCAMRAZ.html/

Palmer, J. and Dodson, M. (eds) (1996) Design and Aesthetics – a Reader. Routledge.

THE BEATLES.COM. URL: http://www.thebeatles.com/top.html/

useit.com. URL: http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20000723.html/

Volkswagen UK. URL: http://www.vw.co.uk/

Web Pages That Suck. URL: http://www.webpagesthatsuck.com/

Wittgenstein, L. (1980) Culture and Value. Blackwell.

Woodham, J.M. (1997) Twentieth-Century Design. Oxford University Press.

Learning technologies, TESOL

Integrating Information and Communication Technology (ICT) with Task-Based Learning (TBL)

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Abstract

In this post, I explore the practicalities of integrating ICT with the TBL framework devised by Willis (1996). This is done by drawing a comparison with an established learning framework that already incorporates ICT, by reflecting on what ICT could add of educational value to TBL tasks, and considering the compatibility of TBL and published language learning activities that make use of ICT. The issue of preservation of task design quality is addressed and it is noted that TBL offers useful guidelines for devising communicative tasks for educators outside TESOL who employ ICT. I also argue that it is desirable for teachers and materials writers to acknowledge the development of thinking skills in ICT in TESOL lesson plans in a standard way and as a matter of standard practice.

Introduction

Two comments in the literature about TBL prompted me to explore the practicalities of integrating ICT with TBL. Knight (2000) suggests that “Long and Crookes’ model of TBL is transferable and therefore realizable in Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) contexts.” He also puts forward the opinion that “other models of TBL may also be relevant for CALL” but does not pursue this line of enquiry. Moreover, Warschauer and Healey (1998) identify TBL, project-based learning and content-based learning as methods to develop both language and ICT skills within authentic contexts.

The aim of this post is to consider whether a TBL framework conceived primarily for language teaching in the classroom, as proposed by Willis (1996), is still workable and perhaps enhanced when ICT is employed. I take three approaches:

  1. Comparing the characteristics of TBL with those of a learning framework not specific to TESOL (i.e. WebQuest) that purposefully integrates ICT;
  2. Conceiving ways to incorporate ICT into TBL tasks and reflecting on the educational benefits of doing so;
  3. Examining the task types used in published TESOL materials that integrate ICT to see whether they match either TBL or WebQuest task types.

As a result I hope to identify, gather and synthesize positive aspects of existing practice into guidelines for integrating ICT and TBL. In addition, I reflect on a possible two-way exchange of insight between TESOL and other branches of education.

The aim of this post is not to debate the validity or usefulness of TBL. I do not wish to constrain course designers, materials writers and teachers by promoting TBL as the best way to integrate ICT with language learning. Whether to adopt TBL is a choice left to those professionals.

Finally, before proceeding, it should be mentioned that the learning scenario envisaged by me is that of ICT being used to compliment and enrich a face-to-face course rather than one which is conducted purely online.

Two learning frameworks: TBL and WebQuest

TBL is an instructional framework, a methodology for language learning. There is a full expression of TBL for classroom teaching in Willis (1996), according to which each task-based lesson has three phases. The first is to activate learners’ schemata regards the topic and to clarify relevant vocabulary (without knowledge of which students might struggle to complete the central task). The second phase is the main communicative task together with preparation and presentation of a reflective report on how the main task was performed. The final accuracy phase is a focus on language items used during the main task together with additional practice of those items. The idea is to provide as genuine a communication opportunity as possible given the restrictions of the classroom. Willis also details ‘processes’ in example TBL lesson plans which may be interpreted as thinking skills (e.g. analysing) or as functions of language (e.g. giving opinions). The language teacher will see the primary value of TBL as a means to develop learners’ language proficiency. The development of thinking skills through the group processing of information is of secondary concern.

The task types proposed are:

  • Listing
  • Ordering, sorting, classifying
  • Comparing, matching
  • Problem-solving
  • Sharing personal experiences, anecdote telling
  • Creative tasks, project work.

Which learning theory underpins TBL? TBL is closely identified with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Willis also refers to cognitive theory and learning styles.

Webquest, a model for learning developed by Dodge (not the car manufacturer) in 1995 at San DiegoUniversity, bears some resemblance to TBL. According to Dodge’s description, the model features an introduction to set the stage and provide background information, a task that is achievable and interesting, a clear process, the teacher should provide guidance, and some kind of closure is required. A clear process may be advocated but the guidelines for preparing a WebQuest are less specific than those in TBL. To be fair, this is partly because WebQuests may be cross-curricular rather than subject specific. An example of a short-term WebQuest is online research followed by student reports to the whole class. A long-term WebQuest involves creating something concrete that can be responded to by others. This can be an authored electronic product (e.g. a digital video story).

Webquest task types include:

  • Responding to a series of questions
  • Summary writing
  • Problem-solving
  • Researching a position to be defended
  • Creative work.

However, these are not the only possibilities and Dodge’s criterion of a good task is “anything that requires processing and transformation of the information.” (Some thoughts about WebQuests)

Which learning theory underpins WebQuest? Dodge makes reference to the work of Marzano (1992) on thinking skills. Marzano’s model is an expansion of Bloom’s taxonomy. The emphasis of this learning framework is on developing thinking skills (e.g. classifying) as well as subject knowledge.

A major difference between the two instructional frameworks is that TBL is largely informed by an approach to learning that is distinct from general learning theory. This can be justified in that “L2 learning needs to be understood in its own terms rather than approached via something else.” Richards (2001). Despite adherence to different approaches, TBL and WebQuest are similarly structured frameworks for learning and even share one task type, namely problem-solving.

A comparison with published TESOL materials that integrate ICT

In Dudeney (2000), a wide range of tried and tested activities are presented in which the Internet and other technologies are employed. Amongst others, the following task types are represented:

  • Basic research
  • Projects
  • Reviewing and classifying
  • Getting opinions
  • Problem-solving

These are reminiscent of WebQuest task types and the task types in TBL that involve more complex cognitive operations.

The value of adding ICT to TBL tasks

Can anything of educational value be added through using ICT in TBL tasks? For a quick reminder of TBL tasks here are examples from Willis (1998):

For example, taking the topic “cats,” a listing task might be: List three reasons why people think cats make good pets. A comparing task might be to compare cats and dogs as pets. A problem-solving task could be to think of three low budget solutions to the problem of looking after a cat when the family is absent. An experience sharing or anecdote telling task could involve sharing stories about cats.

As it stands, the listing task – list three reasons why people think cats make good pets – relies solely on students’ general knowledge. Based on this, students are pretty likely to come up with common, unsurprising reasons. By contrast, given access to the Internet, search skills (and a sensible time limit) students could locate reasons not imagined by any of the class members or evidence to back up their reasons and so promote more stimulating discussion during the comparison stage. Indeed, one group of students could research the pros of cat ownership while a second group does the same for dogs. Members of different groups could then pair up and argue the case for their kind of pet. Alternatively, pairs or small groups of students could sit around computers to discuss the reasons they have found as they cut and paste into PowerPoint slides for presentation to the rest of the class. If the classroom is equipped with an interactive whiteboard, then presentation of ideas is very conveniently managed. It is also true for problem-solving tasks that having the Internet available for access to a wide range of authentic materials is a major advantage.

Importantly, through searching for and gathering ideas from websites, students read and then discuss for a genuine reason, evaluate the ideas they find and synthesize them into something worthy of presentation to their peers. In this example, both language and cognitive skills beyond those intended by classroom-based TBL are exercised through the introduction of ICT. In addition, by completing TBL tasks that employ ICT, students are also given opportunities to hone their ICT skills.

Maintaining task design quality

The advantages of integrating ICT with TBL (or using Webquests in language teaching & learning) will only be realised as long as teachers and materials writers maintain quality in lesson design.

Here are some examples, from my experience, of ways in which poor design can reduce the benefits of TBL lessons that incorporate ICT:

1. Topic rather than task

Simply asking students to spontaneously contribute to an online discussion thread on a given topic does not qualify as a ‘task’ in TBL terms because it lacks communicative purpose. Some students will have sufficient extrinsic motivation to participate, and some may be motivated by the topic itself, but many learners will not be particularly enthused. Moreover, when presented with a topic rather than a task, students tend to tangent or diverge from the topic.

2. Insufficient preparation for the main task

When the first phase of a TBL lesson is too economical the main task may fail or not progress very far. An overview of the topic by the teacher can have a leveling effect, making sure that all the learners are aware of common knowledge about a topic. Then, their online research can push that knowledge further. Linguistic preparation in the form of pre-teaching key vocabulary is also vital to lubricate the main task. An example where a main task has ground to halt is when a written role play was set up on a Bulletin Board System (BBS) with insufficient contextualization beforehand. It was difficult for students to imagine the next lines of characters in the role play without full details of those characters and the situation.

3. A lack of audience

Students may publish Web pages as a means to present project work or creative tasks. This appears to offer an easy solution to the challenge of finding an audience, an important element in authenticity of tasks. People outside the school could view and respond to their work. But this requires more thought and preparation otherwise those Web pages are never visited. One solution is to teach students how to use HTML meta and title tags to improve their ranking in search engines. Another is to upload student work to a free online platform such as Oracle’s Think.com if your institution is a primary or secondary school.

A lesson for TBL from WebQuest

The development of thinking skills is not something that ESOL teachers are in the habit of expressing in lesson aims and objectives. In the Willis version of TBL this is addressed by the inclusion of ‘processes’ in sample lesson plans. However, reference could be made to a more-widely recognised classification of levels of thinking (as WebQuest does by referring to Marzano). It may be the case, if this is not done, that a bias develops in TESOL course materials to develop some thinking skills to the exclusion of others. Another benefit of using a common terminology is that liaison with teachers from other disciplines would be facilitated, especially where ESOL teachers are working in a state or international school. Greater recognition of the relationship of TBL with wider social and psychological processes occurring in classrooms is recommended. This also accommodates humanistic approaches to language learning, the desire to develop the whole person.

 A lesson for WebQuest from TBL

The TBL framework can contribute to quality assurance in WebQuests. By following TBL guidelines for designing communicative main tasks, this ensures that tasks are purposeful, meaningful, real world and probably more memorable. This is reminiscent of Vygotsky (1986) who sees a central role for language in cognition in young minds. He emphasizes that learning should take place in meaningful contexts. If no ‘real’ communication opportunities are provided in the classroom, I question whether conditions are optimum for cognitive development. Putting students in situations that include an information gap between them is important because it is by trying to clarify matters with and for others that we reach a better understanding ourselves.

Conclusion

This was an investigation of the marriage of a TBL framework and ICT. The conclusion reached is that TBL is practicable when ICT is introduced and offers the bonus of supplementary linguistic, cognitive and ICT skills development as long as lesson design quality remains high. In the process of considering TBL and WebQuest, I came to believe that each framework has something to offer the other. TBL has the virtue of a central communicative task which should also be valued in general education and WebQuest makes overt reference to a model of thinking skills.

References

Dodge. B(1995) WebQuests. URL: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec596/about_webquests.html

Dudeney, G. (2000) The Internet and the Language Classroom. CambridgeUniversity Press.

Knight, P. (2000) The role of language and learning models in student-directed CALL. In: Brett, P. (ed.) CALL in the 21st Century. IATEFL.

Marzano, R.J. (1992) A different kind of classroom: Teaching with dimensions of learning. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Richards, J. (2001) The ideology of TESOL. In: Carter, R. and Nunan, D. (eds.) Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. CambridgeUniversity Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1986) Thought and Language. The M.I.T. Press.

Warschauer, M. and Healey, D. (1998) Computers and language learning: an overview [Online]. Language Teaching, 31, 57-71. URL: http://www.gse.uci.edu/markw/overview.html

Willis, J. (1996) A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Longman.

Willis, J. (1998) Task-Based Learning: What kind of adventure? [Online]. The Language Teacher Online, Issue 22. 07-July 1998. URL: http://jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/98/jul/willis.html

LTHE, Methodology, Teaching skills

Problem-Based Learning: Scaffolding in problem crafting and at the problem identification stage

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My focus in this 2005 investigation was the appropriacy of learner support (scaffolding) incorporated by Problem-Based Learning (PBL) facilitators in their design of problem materials and offered real-time during Stage 2: Problem Identification of the PBL process devised by and utilized at Temasek Polytechnic (TP) in Singapore. For more information, please see TP’s webpages on PBL at http://www.tp.edu.sg/home/pbl.htm

I collected and examined PBL materials from various Subjects/Courses at Temasek Polytechnic for indications of scaffolding, and interviewed facilitators concerning their beliefs about the quality & quantity of learner support that should be purposefully incorporated into the design of the problem materials and/or offered during Stage 2 itself. I strove to understand how the need to assist certain learners in their comprehension of problem scenarios can be balanced with the generally recognized desirability of authenticity in PBL problem crafting.

My conclusion was that, although PBL is a form of self-directed learning, scaffolding remains appropriate before and at Stage 2 in the interest of inclusiveness.

Contextual information

TP Diploma Courses are sub-divided into Subjects sub-divided into Topics.

The TP PBL Process:

Stage 1:  Group setting

Stage 2:  Problem identification

Stage 3:  Idea generation

Stage 4:  Learning issues

Stage 5:  Self-directed Learning

Stage 6:  Synthesis and Application

Stage 7:  Reflection and Feedback

Introduction

I was prompted to examine scaffolding in PBL problem materials and at the problem identification stage by two articles, and by a request to develop an academic staff development workshop on the topic of advanced PBL problem design.

The first article, by Puntambekar and Hübscher (2005) was not specifically related to PBL, yet did focus on ‘complex learning environments’ such as project-based and design-based classrooms. It raised concerns about a perceived current emphasis on the tools of scaffolding rather than the scaffolding process. The authors claim that “…although the new curricula and software tools now described as scaffolds have provided us with novel techniques to support student learning, the important features of scaffolding such as ongoing diagnosis, calibrated support, and fading are being neglected.”

Hence, I decided to investigate whether such concerns were warranted in the context of PBL in Temasek Polytechnic. In order to make the research task more manageable and to concentrate my thinking on PBL problem design issues, I chose to focus only on the crafting of PBL problems and the facilitation of Stage 2 – problem identification. The latter was included for consideration because I consider that the design of the problem and the facilitation of Stage 2 are inextricably linked.

Another significant issue was raised by Greening (1998) who highlighted the “implications of PBL modes for students with a non-English background and from a cultural perspective”, and supplied evidence of the value of scaffolding in this area. About 10% of TP students are non-Singaporean, therefore the researcher considered it relevant for his secondary focus to be the inclusiveness of PBL problem design for international students and for any student with less well-developed English language proficiency.

The notion of scaffolding

What is scaffolding? In its original sense, it “…consists essentially of the adult ‘controlling’ those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner’s capacity, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence” (Wood, Bruner, and Ross, 1976). As the learner makes progress in gaining mastery of manageable elements, the adult or teacher gradually restores control of the more challenging elements to the learner. The ultimate goal, of course, is independent overall proficiency.

As an everyday example, an adult holds onto a bicycle seat to take control of a child’s balance while the child becomes proficient in keeping her feet on the pedals, holding the handlebars, steering, etc. After some practice, the adult decides to place a hand on the seat and is prepared to grip tightly only if the child loses her balance. Support is reduced and eventually withdrawn. “A good scaffolder looks for the point where a student can go it alone, and allows the individual to proceed on his or her own initiative.” (Hogan, 1997)

Six types of support that can be provided by an adult or expert were identified by Wood, Bruner and Ross:

  • Getting the learner interested
  • Simplifying the task
  • Providing direction
  • Highlighting crucial features of the task
  • Managing frustration
  • Modeling the task

The idea of scaffolding has been connected to the idea of making available a space for growth that matches a learner’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), as defined by Vygotsky (1978). To continually match a learner’s ZPD, an expert follows a process of:

  • Ongoing diagnosis
  • Calibrated support
  • Fading

The scaffolding metaphor was conceived with one-to-one teaching in mind. It is not immediately obvious how to transfer scaffolding to a classroom situation where the facilitator is outnumbered by the learners, or how scaffolding may be integrated into the learning materials that are used in a class of students.

Scaffolding in PBL problems

If scaffolding in the sense described above were incorporated into the design of PBL problem scenarios, what form might it take?

To digress slightly, let us first consider what ‘elements’ may need to be scaffolded in PBL. They include domain-specific knowledge & skills, and process skills such as time management, interpersonal skills, communication, critical thinking, etc. Besides these, there are other enabling elements that are essential for success in PBL but which may not be mentioned in syllabus documents.

For example, since PBL problems are frequently presented as quasi-authentic written statements, language proficiencies such as the following are vital:

  • general/academic vocabulary range sufficient to gain understanding of the problem statement
  • reading sub-skills, e.g., an ability to guess meaning from cotext
  • linguistic versatility and agility sufficient to paraphrase and summarise the main (factual) points of a problem statement
  • dictionary skills to research unknown, opaque lexical items
  • awareness of grammatical structures employed in factual statements and opinions

Here is an example of the scaffolding of assumed language elements in problem design:

After pre-assessment of learners’ reading skills and vocabulary range, a facilitator opts to ‘control’ challenging vocabulary in the problem statement in one of the following ways:

  1. by pre-teaching the challenging vocabulary
  2. by grading the text, for instance by using everyday vocabulary rather than technical terms  
  3. by presenting the problem statement online, with challenging vocabulary hyperlinked to a glossary
  4. by being willing to respond to vocabulary questions

Taking control of the vocabulary element leaves learners free to focus on traditional PBL elements such as discriminating between fact and opinion in the text. Then, if there were a second problem on the same topic, learners could go through the same problem identification stage with reduced lexical support, the degree and nature of which is decided by the facilitator in the learning context based on ongoing diagnosis. For instance, fewer lexical items in the problem statement could be hyperlinked to the glossary.

In the above example, the facilitator intervenes to remove a potential barrier to problem identification through informed calibration of the language content of a problem statement. In addition, by choosing technique 3 above instead of technique 2, the facilitator is able to maintain the authenticity of language used in the problem statement. This is important for them to enter the discourse community of their chosen profession. It also supports learners during self-directed learning because they may be able to use relevant terminology as search items.

As a second example, consider a problem statement in which there is an exophoric reference, i.e. the significance of the reference is not explicit from the text itself, but is obvious to those in a particular situation or culture. For instance, a problem crafter makes reference to consumer behaviour as ‘kiasu’. Singaporeans understand the implications instantly but this is not the case for many international students who have recently arrived in the country. In this situation, the provision of cultural notes could support international students in their comprehension. This technique to provide support can be reduced and withdrawn as the international students become more familiar with Singapore culture, but they need such support in the short-term to give them an equal chance of succeeding in meeting the learning outcomes associated with PBL.

Scaffolding in PBL problem design at TP

Are the above examples of the scaffolding of problem statements characteristic of scaffolding in PBL problem design at TP?

The sample problem statements (and supporting materials) that I scrutinized showed evidence of various forms of cognitive and affective learner support:

  • a ‘hook’ to engage learners
  • some means to activate learners’ schemata
  • sufficient contextualisation
  • relevance to future careers
  • steadily increasing complexity of problems over time and with multiple exposures to the PBL process
  • division of very large problems into smaller, more manageable problems
  • logical sequencing of a series of connected problems
  • multimodal and/or multisensory presentation of information, e.g. memos, live interviews with clients, statistics, etc.

There was faithful application of common principles for effective problem design distilled from the work of Savin-Baden and Howell-Major (2004), Dolmans and Snellen-Balendong (1997), and Barrows (1994) and recommended to facilitators by TP academic staff developers.

Problems should:

–      require the learning of new core knowledge

–      align with learning outcomes of the programme of study

–      adapt to learner’s prior knowledge

–      be presented in a context that is relevant and authentic* to the current or future profession of the learner

–      stimulate learners to elaborate through cues in the problem

–      encourage integration of knowledge

–      stimulate self-directed learning by encouraging generation of learning issues and research

–      encourage discussion and exploration in the subject matter

It was difficult for me to judge the authenticity of the contexts, but I accepted the assurances of the facilitators of these problems. As a linguist I was able to see that there was some substitution of language in problem statements; a layperson’s vocabulary was being used when in real life there would be terminology specific to the professions.

Learning support was purposefully incorporated into PBL problem design but could not be said to adhere to the original notion of scaffolding because of a lack of dynamism and adaptability in the learning materials.

Scaffolding at Stage 2 of the TP PBL Process

PBL facilitators at TP reported scaffolding at Stage 2 through selective and discerning use of:

–      questioning strategies

–      paraphrasing and probing strategies

–      summarizing to refocus

In their training, TP PBL facilitators are made conscious of the need to “Model, support, observe & fade” (Barrows, 1988). It can be argued that scaffolding during problem identification can compensate for the static nature of learner support in problem statements.

One might also contest that learners scaffold for each other during Stage 2 because they work in collaborative groups and each have different strengths. Perhaps, for example, in a PBL group there is a learner who has the necessary linguistic ability or cultural insight that the others lack. This learner can scaffold for the others. However, Puntambekar and Hübscher (2005) provide evidence for their opinion that learners are unlikely to be applying principles of instructional scaffolding.

Discussion

If learners struggle with comprehension of the problem statement because of English as a Second Language (ESL) or cultural issues, facilitators have the option either to incorporate scaffolding into PBL problem design or to scaffold comprehension during Stage 2.

I suggest that it is inefficient and distracting to deal with ESL and cultural issues at Stage 2 when learners really need to focus on the challenge of identifying facts, and the facilitator needs to focus on the scaffolding of that skill.

Moreover, it has become a practical option to incorporate scaffolding into problem design because of the emergence of educational technologies that can reduce the burden on PBL problem crafters in terms of the authoring of dynamic, adaptive problem materials, and diagnostic tests.

Scaffolding in problem design may also be more realisable in a PBL setting where students experience the PBL process frequently. There will then be opportunities, to use Bruner’s terminology, for multiple ‘routines’ in the same ‘format’.

Conclusion

TP PBL facilitators have designed problems that are true to the principles of PBL problem design sourced from seminal works. There is learner support in the problems that were analysed, but it is not characteristic of the original notion of scaffolding. However, TP PBL facilitators do report scaffolding during Stage 2 of the TP PBL process.

To remove barriers to meeting PBL learning outcomes and for more inclusive learning, scaffolding of the assumed elements of language proficiency and cultural awareness is vital, and can be built into the design of problems. Incorporating scaffolding at this stage has the added advantage of making feasible more authentic language use in problem statements which in turn can support learners in their self-directed learning.

Questions for teachers

Do you facilitate Problem-Based Learning or Enquiry-Based Learning? How do you support learners through the process? Is this scaffolding dynamic? Please provide examples from your experience. Thanks!

References

Barrows, H. S. (1988). The Tutorial Process. Springfield, Illinois: Southern IllinoisUniversitySchool of Medicine.

Barrows, H. S. (1994). Practice-based Learning. Problem-based learning applied to medical education.Illinois: Southern IllinoisUniversitySchool of Medicine.

Dolmans, D.H.J.M. & Snellen-Balendong, H. (1997). Seven Principles of Effective Case Design for a Problem-based Curriculum. Medical Teacher, Sep97, Vol. 19, Issue 3.

Hogan, K. (1997) Introduction. In: Hogan, K. and Pressley, M. (eds.) Scaffolding Student Learning: Instructional Approaches & Issues, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Brookline Books, p. 2.

Puntambekar, S. and Hübscher, R. (2005). Tools for Scaffolding Students in a Complex Learning Environment: What Have We Gained and What Have We Missed? Educational Psychologist, 40(1), 1 – 12.

Savin-Baden, M. and Howell Major, C. (2004). Foundations of Problem-based Learning. Maidenhead, Berks: Open University Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. HarvardUniversity Press.

Wood, D.J., Bruner, J.S., & Ross, G. (1976) The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89-100.

Learning technologies, Teacher development, TESOL

Life after CELTA and CertTESOL: Effective online professional development for novice ESOL teachers

2 Comments

Comments like the one below from Dave’s ESL Cafe’s Teacher Training forum prompted me, back in 2002, to investigate the instructional design and content of an online course or resource to help novice ESOL teachers continue their professional development. By ‘novice’ I mean teachers in the first two years of full-time work following completion of a pre-service certificate such as the Trinity Cert TESOL or Cambridge ESOL CELTA.

CELTA course inadequate

Posted By: Teaching in Korea
Date: Monday, 29 October 2001, at 3:36 p.m.

I finished my CELTA course in Australia this year and am now working in Korea. While the course was useful for a general overview, it was too fast-paced and it overlooked a lot of the practical realities of teaching e.g. level testing, how to teach exam classes, how to cope with discipline problems, how to set tests etc etc.

A four week course is not long enough to learn about teaching ESOL!!! I still have a lot of questions that need to be answered. I think the course should be at least 3 months full time to adequately cover what we will need in the profession.

I was aware from my own experience as a teacher and trainer that, after earning their certificates, newly-qualified ESOL teachers typically receive no additional professional guidance from training centres (except perhaps when these teachers immediately get a job at the language centre where they trained). Instead, it’s up to the first employers and the teachers themselves to continue professional development. This leads to disparity in the amount and quality of professional development opportunities in which new teachers may participate.

For novice teachers who have not yet had a chance to become practised at being reflective practitioners, or who work for an institution that provides few or no opportunities for professional growth, the result can be the sense of isolation described by Holmes (2000), ‘Teaching can seem a lonely career, with many new teachers feeling that they must cope with the job alone.’ Holmes wrote this about newly qualified state school teachers in the UK. The problem of professional isolation, I suspected, is likely to be more chronic in the world of TESOL because of greater distances and the lack of a statutory induction period and support overseen by bodies such as the UK’s Teacher Training Agency (TTA).

ESOL teacher trainers on pre-service certificate programmes, however great their efforts, are not really able to prepare new teachers for the tremendous diversity of TESOL contexts that can be encountered. Teaching situations may range from one-to-one business English, to playing educational games in English with pre-schoolers, to lecturing to over a hundred university students, and more. ESOL teachers encounter a broad range of cultural and educational heritages, learner expectations and motivations for learning English. Work ethics vary considerably from place to place as well as between public and private sectors.

There are factors that, traditionally, have limited the provision of continuing professional development in TESOL. Teacher educators are not expected to remain involved after the conclusion of certificate courses. In fact it states explicitly on the back of my own certificate that:

Successful candidates at this level will continue to need guidance from their employers to help them develop their potential and broaden their range of skills as teachers.

It is, however, not the intention that this guidance should be provided by the original training centre. Training centres are commercial, and have fulfilled their obligations by the end of the pre-service course. Another restricting factor has been that newly qualified teachers disperse all over the world and are often physically distant from their training centres. So, the amount and quality of guidance that these teachers receive is normally dependant upon their choice of first job, the willingness of senior colleagues to act as informal mentors, and their own ability and enthusiasm to reflect on and learn from experience.

My suspicion was that ESOL teachers need greater provision of professional development opportunities after a pre-service certificate. In particular, such opportunities began to seem necessary as preparation for the challenge of an in-service diploma course or MA a few years later. Moreover, improved continuity in professional development may benefit students and schools and promote the credibility of TESOL as a profession. Reducing disparities in professional development would also make it easier for potential employers to compare ESOL teachers who have the same number of years of experience. Such professional development opportunities could be provided online and made globally accessible.

I decided to verify my suspicions and to investigate how online professional development might fill the perceived gap. I conducted research on suitable professional development content for ESOL teachers in the first few years of their careers, on a suitable synthesis of online learning models and on the technical means to deliver professional development online. The research process involved both direct investigation and a review of relevant literature.

My direct investigations began with a pilot questionnaire of a small group of recently qualified ESOL teachers (who were my ex-trainees). Feedback on this questionnaire informed the design of a wider anonymous Web survey of 109 novice ESOL practitioners around the world. In addition, I conducted interviews with 11 ESOL teacher educators. Surveyed novice ESOL teachers’ suggestions for professional development topics were coded according to Cambridge ESOL DTEFLA syllabus divisions. Some valuable insight was also gained from feedback on the trial version of a Web site. I designed this resource, called the Certified English Language Teachers’ Improvement Centre or CELT-IC for short, in accordance with the preferences of those ESOL teachers who answered the pilot questionnaire.

I came to several conclusions as a result of the literature review*:

  • The evidence for a genuine need for online professional development opportunities for novice ESOL teachers is indirect.
  • There are many, many possibilities for the content of an online resource for ESOL teachers at an early stage of their career.
  • Models of online learning most recommended currently are inspired by cognitive or social constructivism.
  • Adult learning theory and reflective practice may be integrated without conflict into an overall constructivist approach.
  • There is a wealth of data and advice regards online course design, but relatively little for online resource design.
  • A voluntary online resource presents challenges for the successful use of online discussion forums because a healthy level of participation on such forums is only ensured when their use is a compulsory part of a course. The implication to me is that either the topics for discussion must be so interesting that users cannot resist contributing or online discussion forums should not be made a central feature of a voluntary resource.

The literature review revealed that direct investigation was required of the following:

  • an indication of the size, scope and extent of novice ESOL teachers’ professional development needs;
  • novice ESOL teachers’ preferences for professional development content;
  • whether the stated professional development preferences of teachers are what they really need;
  • suitable methods of instruction/learning;
  • the degree of direction required from the teacher educator who manages the online resource;
  • novice ESOL teachers’ preference for either an online course or online resource.

I analysed the survey and interview results and compared my findings with the literature review. Keeping in mind the modest sample sizes as a basis for making generalisations, I reached the following conclusions:

  • The professional development needs of novice ESOL teachers are sufficient reason for the development of online resources.
  • The surveyed ESOL teachers were strongly in favour of acquiring skills of self-management that are relevant to the workplace.
  • The highest priority for professional development topics was for resources and materials, followed by classroom management, TESOL theory and language awareness.
  • The teacher educators most frequently suggested language awareness and ICT skills as topics for professional development.
  • There appeared to be a preference amongst survey respondents for learning independently of other learners, but a design fault in a survey question put this conclusion into doubt.
  • Training modules consistent with a transmission model of learning (such as those at ICT4LT) and guided discovery tasks were the most favoured ways to learn online.
  • There was evidence of novice ESOL teachers preferring to learn from and through communication with authorities on TESOL rather than from and through communication with their peers.
  • The discussion of cultural issues and workplace difficulties could be beneficial in two ways – to promote reflective practice and to provide opportunities to develop skills to adapt to new work environments.
  • A majority of the teacher educators recommended strong direction for novice ESOL teachers in their professional development.
  • An online resource was much more popular than an online course, which has implications for the successful use of online discussion forums.
  • Guided discovery tasks appeared suitable to meet the demand for both clear direction and the preference for an online resource.
  • Download times should be kept to a minimum to reach as many novice ESOL teachers around the world as possible.
  • Some teachers suggested the use of video in online learning but this was brought into question by long download times in some parts of the world.
  • Web site navigation must be of a high standard to promote maximum usability and accessibility and to avoid user misinterpretation of the learning philosophy of the site.

Recommendations

To sum up,

  • Teacher educators deciding to design and manage an online resource for novice ESOL teachers should consult the particular      group about their security and privacy preferences. It is possible to have different levels of openness in different areas (pages) of the online resource. For example, on CELT-IC the training modules are completely open but joining the mailing list is subject to approval by its owner.
  • ESOL teacher educators embarking on the design, implementation and running of an online resource or course should assess      their own skills and develop new Web design, materials design and online moderating skills as necessary.
  • The content priorities are just that – priorities. If the online resource grows sufficiently, then a greater range of professional development topics can be included.

Additionally, I recommend the following research in order to determine:

  • the proportion of ESOL teachers preferring either solitary learning or learning with others, together with an investigation of the reasons for such preferences;
  • why novice ESOL teacher survey respondents favoured training modules and guided discovery tasks as ways to learn online;
  • how to accommodate the use of digital video and visual learners on an online resource when download times are a      constraining factor in certain locations;
  • effective ways to introduce users to online educational resources.

Large TESOL organisations interested in providing online professional support or ESOL teacher educators with financial support could investigate:

  • the logistics and financial considerations of larger scale provision of online professional development for novice ESOL      teachers;
  • the issue of course/resource recognition in providing online professional support in TESOL;
  • the attributes of various Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) such as WebCT or Moodle in order to choose one suitable to facilitate the promotion of novice ESOL teacher development and to simplify the authoring process for teacher educators.

Note

*This review included journal articles (e.g. Burt and Keenan 1998, Hawk 2000, Lloyd and Draper 1998, and Skinner 2002: 271) and books (see especially Holmes 2000, McVay Lynch 2002 and Salmon 2000).

References

Burt, M. and Keenan, F. (1998) Trends in Staff Development for Adult ESL Instructors. Eric Digest. URL: http://www.cal.org/caela/digests/TrendQA.htm

Cambridge ESOL DTEFLA Syllabus. URL: http://www.cambridgeesol.org/teaching/dTESOLa0104.pdf  

Dave’s ESL Cafe’s Teacher Training Forum. URL: http://eslcafe.com/discussion/dz1/

Hawk, W.B. (2000) Online Professional Development for Adult ESL Educators. Eric Digest. URL: http://www.cal.org/caela/digests/pdQA.htm

Holmes, E. (2000) Newly Qualified Teachers. The Stationery Office Books.

ICT4LT. URL: http://www.ict4lt.org/

(A Web site devoted to training language teachers in relevant ICT skills)

Lloyd, C. and Draper, M. (1998) Learning interactively at a distance: supporting learning, teaching and continuing professional development using information and communication technology. Journal of In-Service Education, Vol. 24, No. 1, p.87-97.

McVay Lynch, M. (2002) The Online Educator: A Guide to Creating the Virtual Classroom. Routledge Falmer.

Salmon, G. (2000) E-Moderating: The Key to Teaching and Learning Online. Kogan Page.

Skinner, B. (2002) Moving on: from training course to workplace. TESOL Journal, Volume 56, Issue 3, pp. 267-272.

Questions for teachers and teacher educators

Do you agree with my findings? Has the situation changed since this research was conducted?

Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction (DI) – a strong rationale, but does it really work?

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“We do not teach a group, but thirty separate people.  Because of this, the problem of mixed abilities in the same room seems absolutely natural, and it is the idea of teaching a unitary lesson that seems odd”. (Rinvolucri, 1986)

Rinvolucri’s realization is a common one. In fact, advocates of DI go further, suggesting that it is not just abilities that vary between learners but also degrees of interest and learning styles. All of these variations, it is argued, beg a considered and positive response from the teaching profession. The movement towards catering for all learners also gains support from the fact that in many countries equal access to educational opportunities is enshrined in law.

DI defined

Differentiated instruction is an attempt at a systematic response to learner differences, a framework to help teachers move away from ‘teaching to the middle’. Tailoring lessons for the middle band of students in a class results in some students being over challenged, some under challenged, some unable to gain access to key concepts, and many demotivated. By contrast, with differentiated instruction the aim is to arrange lessons so that all students progress towards desired learning outcomes but reach them in ways that are personally suitable. Lecturers and teachers try to make it possible for all learners to acquire course content, make sense of ideas, and develop learning products that are compatible with their learning profiles.

Historical development of DI

Differentiated instruction is by no means a new phenomenon. Teachers have always practised some degree of differentiation simply by noticing which students require more or less challenge and by asking them different questions. But as a systematic response with a ‘package’ of strategies it is fairly recent. It has been around since the 1980s when it was introduced for the sake of gifted students, and it has received fresh impetus with the move to include students with disabilities into general education classrooms. The cultural make-up of classrooms has also become very diverse with the presence of immigrants and international students. In the United States’ public school system for instance, differentiated instruction has been applied at all levels for students of all abilities. Moreover, it is now an accepted part of pre-service training for teachers in many parts of the world, especially North America, Europe and Australasia.

Supporters of DI

Differentiated instruction has a number of proponents. Key writers on the subject are Susan Winnebrenner (1992, 1996) and Carol Ann Tomlinson (2000). The former writes about particular types of learners, e.g. those with learning difficulties, whereas the latter provides a particularly clear overview. Tomlinson’s book – How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms – is available from the ASCD (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development) in the USA.

Evidence for the value of DI

Tomlinson claims support for her version of differentiated instruction by drawing conclusions from research into teaching and learning:

  1. Learners must make sense of what teachers seek to impart, and this process is influenced by prior knowledge, interests, beliefs, learning styles, and attitudes about self and the place of learning. (National Research Council, 1990)
  2. Learning takes place effectively where knowledge is well-organised, students are actively engaged in the learning process, a variety of testing instruments are employed, and students feel secure and have a sense of belonging to their learning environment. (National Research Council, 1990)
  3. The degree of challenge must be just enough to push learners slightly beyond their independence level. (Vygotsky, 1962)
  4. Motivation to learn increases when students are interested in what they are trying to learn. (Piaget, 1978)
  5. People learn in different ways influenced by factors such as brain architecture, culture and gender. (Delpit, 1995; Gardner, 1983; Sternberg, 1985)

The implications, suggests Tomlinson, are that teachers need to provide learning experiences that encourage students to work in their preferred fashion, are motivating, and challenge them appropriately. Additional support for differentiated instruction comes from classroom examples and testimonials from satisfied students and convinced instructors. However, empirical validation of the full model of differentiated instruction is rather lacking. It is an area that warrants future research.

Introducing DI to Schools: A Hong Kong Case Study

I assisted with action research conducted by teaching staff at Hong Kong secondary schools from 2007-1012. The school leaders were intrigued by DI because the approach appeared to be consistent with their institutions’ mission statements such as “[School name] educators should try to handle each one in the way she is made.” Following a series of training workshops to introduce the approach, teachers were given freedom to experiment in their classrooms for one academic year after which principals and vice-principals observed lessons.

The DI strategies that teachers found more immediately useable were as follows: varied questioning, tiered activities, concept-based teaching and minilessons. It was observed that diagnostic pre-assessments were employed insufficiently at first, but when they were introduced, the following strategies became more workable: curriculum compacting and flexible grouping. As peer feedback became common practice in the school, other strategies became practical, namely peer mentoring and jigsaw activities.

Question for teachers

In your experience of using DI, has it really had an impact on learning and grades?

References

Delpit, L. (1995) Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. The New Press.

Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic Books.

National Research Council (1990) How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. NationalAcademy Press.

Piaget, J. (1978) Success and understanding. HarvardUniversity Press.

Rinvolucri, M. (1986) Strategies for a mixed ability group. Practical English Teaching, Vol 7/1.

Sternberg, R. (1985) Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. CambridgeUniversity Press.

Tomlinson, C.A. (2000) How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. ASCD (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development). LB3061.3 Tom

Vygotsky, L. (1962) Thought and language. MIT Press.

Winnebrenner, S. (1992) Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom. Free Spirit Publishing.

Winnebrenner, S. (1996) Teaching kids with learning difficulties in the regular classroom. Free Spirit Publishing.